Chapter 7 – Resistance and Activism in the Jim Crow Era, 1877–1954

This text directly challenges Washington’s theory of accommodation. Du Bois argues for the necessity of higher education and the immediate civil, political, and economic rights for Black citizens. It is a foundational work of Black literature and sociology. Teachers could assign short chapters from the text to analyze the psychological impact of racism and dive deeper into the concept of “double consciousness.”

Up from Slavery: An Autobiography
Booker T. Washington, 1903
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This autobiography chronicles Washington’s journey from enslavement to becoming the founder and principal of the Tuskegee Institute. The book serves as a powerful defense of his philosophy, which advocated for Black people to achieve economic self-reliance through industrial education and accommodation rather than immediate political agitation. Students could be assigned this text and W.E.B. Du Bois’s text and then present the major differences between philosophies.

The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration
Isabel Wilkerson, 2010
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This influential text documents the history of the Great Migration, the decades-long movement of nearly six million African Americans from the South to the North and West of the United States. Wilkerson does this by documenting the personal stories of three individuals who traveled at different times to different cities, showing that the decision was a profound act of agency and resistance. Teachers could assign students different storylines and have students present the essence of each narrative, celebrating the courage and agency.

Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents
Isabel Wilkerson, 2020
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This text argues that a hidden, enduring caste system structures American society, using the historical hierarchy of the United States, Nazi Germany, and India as comparative models. Wilkerson asserts that race in America is the primary visible indicator of this underlying caste framework—a rigid, inherited structure of rank and human value that dictates power, resources, and social standing. Pairing a screening of Origin with key chapters from this text will promote reflection on the role of caste in America.

Videos

Black American History Crash Course
https://thecrashcourse.com/topic/bah/

Black American History Crash Course is a 51-episode video series hosted by Clint Smith, freely available on YouTube. Several episodes are especially relevant for this chapter:

Episode 20: Ida B. Wells
Episode 22: Black Political Leadership: Washington and Du Bois
Episode 24: The Great Migration
Episodes 26 & 27: The Harlem Renaissance

Film

Origin
Ava DuVernay, 2024

This film is based on Wilkerson’s book Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents. It follows Wilkerson as she grapples with personal grief while investigating the global roots of inequality. The film can be found on streaming services such as Amazon and Apple TV.

Websites

Civil Rights History Project
Library of Congress, National Museum of African American History and Culture, and American Folklife Center
https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-rights-history-project/

The Civil Rights History Project is an extensive collection of primary source materials focusing on the Civil Rights Movement. Its core feature is a large archive of oral history interviews with activists, leaders, and participants who fought against Jim Crow segregation. Students could listen to an interview and present key moments from the individual’s story.

The Debate Between W.E.B. Dubois and Booker T. Washington
Frontline
https://pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/debate-w-e-b-du-bois-and-booker-t-washington/

This is a comprehensive website that features articles, primary source links, and an analysis of the tensions between the two men. Teachers can click on links to further investigate the different approaches each man believed in to pursue economic and social justice.

The Era of Segregation, 1877–1968
National Museum of African American History and Culture
https://www.searchablemuseum.com/era-of-segregation/

This dynamic online exhibit includes an interactive timeline and numerous resources exploring segregation in American history. Part 1, “Creating a Segregated Society,” covers Reconstruction and the rise of Jim Crow.

The Enduring Song of James Reese Europe
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Google Arts & Culture
https://artsandculture.google.com/story/PAUxbKT_a_msIQ

This Google Arts & Culture exhibit explores the legacy of composer and bandleader James Reese Europe. It includes videos of modern performances and panel discussions about his influence on American music.

Glossary

accommodation: A philosophy, associated with Booker T. Washington, of accepting segregation while working for gradual economic improvement.
Back to Africa Movement: Various initiatives, most notably led by Marcus Garvey in the early 20th century, advocating for Black Americans to return to Africa and establish independent nations free from white oppression.
canon: The established body of works, narratives, or figures traditionally recognized as important or authoritative in a field.
Civil Rights Act: Federal laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
combat: Active fighting in a war or conflict; armed warfare.
desegregation: The process of ending the legal separation of racial groups, particularly in the military and public institutions.
disenfranchise: To deprive someone of the right to vote.
Great Migration: The movement of millions of Black Americans from the rural South to cities in the North, Midwest, and West from 1910 to 1970.
Harlem Renaissance: The flowering of Black intellectual and artistic life centered in Harlem, New York during the 1920s and 1930s.
immoral: Not conforming to accepted standards of morality; unethical.
inequality: The state of being unequal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities.
injunction: A court order requiring someone to do or cease doing a specific action.
jazz: A musical genre created by Black Americans, blending African rhythms with European harmonies, that became central to American culture.
patriotism: Devoted love, support, and defense of one’s country.
racism: Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one’s own race is superior.
ragtime: A musical genre created by Black American composers and pianists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by syncopated rhythms and complex melodies; became widely popular in American culture and served as an important precursor to jazz.
social justice: Justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society.
spirituals: Religious songs created by enslaved African Americans that blended African musical traditions with Christian themes; often contained coded messages about freedom and escape routes, serving as both expressions of faith and subtle forms of resistance and communication.
suffrage: The right to vote in political elections.
symbolic: Serving as a symbol; representing something beyond its literal meaning.
Talented Tenth: W.E.B. Du Bois’s concept that the top ten percent of educated Black Americans should lead the race toward progress.
uplift: The effort to improve the social, economic, and moral conditions of a community.
veteran: A person who has served in the armed forces and has been discharged.